The closed academy? Guild power and academic social class

Academic inbreeding is a deeply ingrained practice which needs to be understood by reference the medieval guilds. Drawing on guild concept and associated benefits of forms capital, distinction drawn between ‘guild-route’ academics who have followed privileged, linear path into academe their ‘non-guild’ counterparts tend enter later in career from professions or industry, often without PhD. The tendency represent early researchers background as members an academic proletariat largely misleading fails take account privileged entrée academe. Their experience contrasted with those recruited via non-guild route do not valued social, cultural symbolic capital needed advance careers. Policy implications are discussed better understand effects social class recruitment practices universities. ?????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? normally defined ‘a universities hire own graduates faculty directly after doctoral graduation’ (Horta et al., 2011, p. 36). Yet, network well institutional level. research students senior professors at research-intensive part these wider networks relevantly similar institutions. This influences hiring staff cluster other, elite (Shin 2016). has always been basis for reproduction profession, but it continuing historical reflection university's roots. In contemporary times, however, there characterise corrupt departure egalitarian meritocratic norms nepotistic employment junior how now appears seriously out step, particularly Western society, where privilege based connections considered outdated hereditary system absolute rule. Yet principles themselves invention liberal conception higher education both (formerly ‘pupils’) ‘masters’) work within These gained traction since mid 19th century when first started admit religious minorities others formerly labelled ‘heretics’, becoming more open women working-class students. Liberal perceived conflict roots nepotism, power means that while such virtue signalled modern university, they still widely overridden practice. paper will explore origins explain this underpins sustained inequalities guild-route non-guild-route academics. It argued best able gain full access (Bourdieu, 1986) secure status (increased position thus power) hierarchy, maximising personal derive capitalism, prestige cronyism. Non-guild-route academics, contrast, less leverage advantages. university were corporate body equals making decisions collective basis. operated parallel strong hierarchical structure (Wilson, 1942). Latin word universitas implied guild, various types occupationally related merchants artisans (Epstein, 1998; Ogilvie, 2011; Renard, 1918), scholastic guilds consisting pupils masters (Rashdall, 1895). original times teaching using critical method philosophical analysis. They established formal authorisation monarchy church recognised them, University Paris, originally named Universitas magistrorum scholarium (a scholars) (Classen, 1981). Guilds enjoyed right self-determination, what today we would call autonomy, granted state because activities offer society. permitted develop rules regulations govern affairs interference external authorities. tenure rooted privileges Hence, sought exclusive were, today's terms, elitist organisations promoted credentialism, cronyism old boy (Miller & Fox, 1998). no accident Guild European Research-Intensive Universities founded 2016 name chosen grouping 15 institutions ancient origins; Paris Jagiellonian originated 12th 14th century, respectively. may irrelevance environment increasingly seen subject managerial processes assumptions metaphor free market. professoriate and, it, traditional power, thought wane due emphasis 1980s new public management (e.g., Enders, 2000). notion self-governance withered (Shattock, 2014). only element tradition ironically, individual level, inbred traditions scholarship much equipped manage neoliberal pressures become performance-driven know publish obtain funding through leveraging networks. many respects, persists despite trappings modernity adoption widening participation agenda By had evolved advancement eight Prussian subsequently became model rest world, doctorate philosophy entry qualification profession. Outstanding obtained seek Privatdocent once passed Habilitation, further scholarly (Arnold, 1882). was, effect, apprentice was receipt salary. reliant charging fees lectures competition allowed charge than masters, rule kept up mark ensured hungry ‘every motive exert himself’ 1882, 143). If did perform well, make living progress any career. next step professor extraordinary, some whom received again made perceptions performance providing prospect professor. then fixed salary assured condition giving least two per week each semester opportunity top income examination fee-charging lectures. also common terms self-governance. senate consisted incoming outgoing rector (or president/vice chancellor) responsible internal affairs, elected just 1 year, together selected four faculties (theology, law, medicine philosophy). consist dean, single year only, professors. formed profession across world mainly export PhD United States (US) later, Kingdom (UK) 1920s, systems place heavy demands apprentices ultimate prize job security steady hurdle surmounted. What notable highly competitive. While around rather research, lectures, parallels sense Privatdocents assistant today, compete hard membership advancement. perhaps helps why jobs market remained closed until 1960s taking care way positions formally advertised act brokers helping fill vacancies. meant held key information about opportunities existed helped control marketplace. developed developing contexts process partially closed. Even 2000s, estimated 90 100 cent hires Spain Italy confined local candidates (Gui 2002). Closed continue prevail Asian cultures Vietnam (Pham Nguyen, 2020) Japan 2011). groups nothing new; can traced back phulon (Donlan, 1985) among Dark Age Greeks, male drinking clubs banquets classical Greece Rome (Black, 2017; Hänninen, 2015). events important, ceremonial component 2017), long-distance trading associations referred ‘Universitas’ ‘Hansa’ (Ogilvie, 2014; Põder, 2010). term ‘guild’ 1st AD—Gilda—signified reinforcement ‘social solidarity’ banquet Ogilvie (2011, 1), suggesting gatherings ‘privileged associations’, solely focused attaining economic growth used pressure group conform, reinforce identity. provided exemption taxes, working hours badge quality. Though come associate idea being professional organisation, Germanic gilt ‘fraternities young warriors practising cult heroes’ (Le Bras, 1940–1941, 316 note, cited Black, one could argue analogous university. trade craft steep dues keep selective increasing political motives, exclusionary over time (Renard, 1918). worked 1998), enforced quality standards completion training protection membership. Similarly, yearly tuition exit qualification, degree, its measure standardisation oldest Oxford Cambridge retain form segregation, ‘endowed houses under supervision master’ (University Oxford, 2020), colleges undertake ritual custom dining maintenance (Dacin 2010), supporting strengthening identity beliefs. transferable skills; apprenticed (the equivalent bachelor) craftsman (graduate/master's student) before spending several years journeyman (doctoral getting chance master graduate) (Huisman, 2012) payment fee production masterpiece thesis). recover costs ‘students’ them wages below rate reached certain skill level akin use teach undergraduate seminars setting. business school, found guilds, tenured (Miles, Just space scholars carry roles, guildhall called A value conferred guildhalls, ‘ceremonial stage’ upon carried acts relations solidify identity; symbol authority (Giles, 1999). same imbued institution centre ‘elite’, functionalist, structural interpretation buildings itself merely ‘container human action, active construction structures' 1999, 14). ‘space syntax’, coupled Durkheim's theories society Hillier Hanson (1989), tells us spaces reflect them. structures shared values beliefs members, Durkheim (1982) “technical” societies, reflected segregated dispersed itself. physical mirrors yet communal, ‘public’ areas rituals Within separated divisions different office field study. discipline itself, divided department, type out. division reflects structure, sociopolitical complexity academia, smaller, larger academia transferred guildhalls endowed today. ‘members’, staff, association influence leading cumulative advantage already privilege. As ‘networks knowledge learning’ 2012, 4), function old, ‘members’ travel study professors—the field—to themselves. Papers exploring life understandably focus advantages refer ‘elite’ entering ‘guild route’. Akin journeymen counterpart student studied completed full-time elite, ‘master’ usually follows acquisition prior qualifications—normally bachelor master's degrees—also undertaken (if one) ever leaving prestige, symbolic, attended studied. Bourdieu (1987, 3) ‘homogeneous sets economically socially differentiated individuals’, relational positions, individuals struggle (through capital). Groups arise exist relationship another, positionality, ‘distance’. Distinct general class, result relationship, subsequent ‘distance’ knowledge, benefits, lower-status, teaching-focused, vocationally oriented other words, derived reputational person's alma mater. Research-intensive universities, Russell Group UK, 8 Australia, Ivy League US, example, most prestigious ‘top-class’ trained, retained prosper. UK divide teaching-intensive vocational qualifications, significantly fewer hold PhDs, fewer, professorial available (Higher Education Statistics Agency, 2020a, 2020b). Opportunities smaller departments scarce; exist, supervisors necessarily possess relevant scholar pass onto nor increase hierarchy. imbue association, neither externally ranks. that, relatively number disadvantage compared cousins therefore accept existence route’, automatically assume must opposite, ‘non-guild previously established, exclusionary; does mean you ‘opposing’ group, excluded group. Drawn ‘world work’ never left academe, likely join teaching-intensive, institution, one—the home academic. Where offered contract ‘teaching-only’ opposed (an ‘all-round’ contract). On required complete part-time mature member staff. contrast route, non-traditional begins life, having spent professions, performing arts, industry. Each roles arguably itself; nursing, law occupations, including banking marketing, protections afforded addition mismatch non-academic, ‘academic’ habitus non-academic unlikely help ‘rules game’ (Bourdieu Wacquant, 1992) affecting of, journey within, academia. Often ‘late bloomers’, tied specific geographic regions family obligations partner's job; prohibited national searches, restricted (Karlgaard, 2019; Kim, 2019). Consequently, find move ‘get ahead’. Inherently mobile, amass immobile counterparts, play insignificant prevalence ‘top’, (Altbach 2015; Horta 2010) nations, Argentina (Rabossi, 2015), Poland (Kosmulski, 2015) (Cruz-Castro Sanz-Menéndez, 2010; Rocca, 2007). Bourdieu's (1977) provides analyse practices, effect ‘collective’ ‘can shape individuals' (Burke 2013, 167); although vary, co-operation group; conformity sorts, affinity between, (Balmer Burke 2013). agency, perceives experiences inherently distinct privy group's behaviours. important understand, fortunes Early-career victims unfairness inequality, conventional measures gender, caring responsibilities, insecure, fixed-term contracts. enjoys inbuilt claims proletarian suspect best. Non-guild real proletarians, linear, early-career postdoctoral fellow. late starters acquire sufficient enable research-focused even disadvantaged strongly established. exclusion inclusion, needing determine insider outsider. New entrants need behaviours image insiders. cultural, ‘traditional’ Unless conduct results esteemed journals remain outsiders. if succeed gaining enjoy (social connections) (institutional embodied prestige) lifelong possess. Social (1986) reproduces inequality ‘hereditary transmission’ (p. 244) capital; will, unconsciously, capital—in forms—through simply attendance association. institutionalised securing departmental 1986). Through embody attitude conform norms, resources durable relationships mutual acquaintance recognition’ 248); collective, exchange obligation. Acquiring enhance one's involves building relationships; relation inbreeding, greater hire, build vital, knowing ‘right people’ well-connected colleagues collaborations kinds flow. capture essence British context ‘old network’ equivalents elsewhere internationally ‘guanxi’ (China) ‘kancei’ (Japan). practical operates references recommendations studentships subtly introductions conferences, invitations contribute edited books special issues journals, co-authorship citation rings. Co-authorship indicative inasmuch flow someone publishes with, intellectual figure field, published. intellectual, peer-to-peer generated valuable building. acquired hold; ‘known people know’ 1986, 251), kind ‘reputational’ will. keeping limited (such inbreeding—hiring graduates) beliefs, maintaining One significant elements PhDs explaining 80 variance sociology (Burris, 2004). Here, marriage partners Indian caste system. Whereas ‘most rarely lesser ranked departments, converse true’ 2004, 244). demonstrates centrality role reinforcing divisions. ancient, lower status, teaching-focused Bruce Truscot, writing 1940s, Oxbridge (then, so-called) ‘redbrick’ following illustration: ‘Redbrick’ Truscot refers represented ‘new’ polytechnics cater subjects vocational, technical semi-professional occupations. relates skills, give person educational backgrounds respect tacit connection research. produces understanding ‘research (Lucas, 2006), central grant publication, unconscious doxa 1977; Deer, inherent Knowing